Indoor kidding and disease prevention

Vaccinate Dams against the cloistral diseases in good time to ensure protection of the progeny. Use other vaccines only after veterinary recommendation or based upon the previous years' experience. Ensure good quality nutrition of the dams in last third of pregnancy, including attention to any extra mineral supplements that may be required.

The housing must be dry, well ventilated and drought-free. Remove any bedding or material from the previous year and pressure wash floors and walls with Farm Care Quat-Gard at a dilution of 1:500. Disinfect house with Farm Care Farm-Gard at a dilution of 1:200 just prior to introduction of the dams, allowing time to dry. Provide plenty of clean bedding to keep the progeny clean, dry and warm making sure that the bedding is neither dusty nor moldy.

All progeny must receive adequate colostrum within 12 hours of birth. It is absolutely vital that the massive bacterial build-up which begins as soon as the dams come indoors is controlled in order to prevent Watery Mouth, Scours and Navel and Joint Ill. This can be easily achieved by using Farm Care Viru-Gard at a dilution of 1:200 as a fine spray or mist several times daily — while the dams and progeny are still in the building. Keep all equipment clean; use Farm Care Viru-Gard at a dilution of 1:100 to clean and disinfect utensils. Make sure your hands are cleaned properly between births – use a germicidal soap.

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Hygiene at Sheep Farm and Goat Farm - Safeguarding Health and more

Good husbandry is the key to success, and good hygiene is an integral part of good husbandry. This must start pre-lambing or kidding, to prepare the dams, and their environment, so that the progeny have the best and safest possible start in life.

Sheep and goats are never more vulnerable than at lambing or kidding. There is often a high mortality at this time, particularly of the progeny. While some of these deaths are inevitable, many can be avoided.

Because lambs and kids are born with no natural immunity to disease, their only immediate protection will be through the colostrum taken from the dam immediately after birth. To pass on protection the dam must have antibodies to the life threatening diseases in her own blood stream, so it is essential that they are vaccinated in good time before birth, to ensure the progeny's protection.

It is also important to ensure that, particularly in the last third of pregnancy, good quality nutrition is available to the dam, including additional mineral supplements if required.

Preparing the environment for the birthing dam is the next vital step. The housing used must be dry, well ventilated and draught-free. Disinfection of the birthing area must be regarded as of prime, and continuing, importance.

Remove any bedding or material from the previous year. Straw bales can be useful here, since these can be taken out and burned at the end of session destroying any lingering infection.

The empty pens, both floors and walls, should be pressure washed with Quat-Garddiluted at 1:500. It is vital that the birthing area is absolutely clean so immediately prior to the arrival of the dams treat the house with a broad spectrum disinfectant, use Farm-Gard diluted at 1:100, allowing it to dry before moving the dams in.

Plan the housing so that sick dams and progeny can be kept apart from the healthy stock, to avoid the dangers of infection. Bought-in dams should also be kept apart and birthed separately to avoid cross-infection.

The stockman’s hygiene is also of importance. Infection can be spread from animal to animal if hygiene procedures are not scrupulously observed. When examining dams or progeny, hands should be thoroughly cleaned before and afterwards, using bactericidal hand soap

Clean boots and overalls should be worn, and sick animals tended last, to prevent carrying infection to healthy animals.

Some diseases, for example salmonellae infections, are transmissible to man, and can be extremely serious. Attention to detail in hygiene matters is all important - a particular threat to guard against is the possibility of infection when dealing with scouring progeny.

The newborn is a prey to a host of infections because of its lack of natural immunity, so it is vital that it receives adequate colostrum within the first few hours of birth. During the time the dams have been housed prior to birthing, a bacterial build-up will have occurred. It is essential that this is controlled, or the progeny will succumb to diseases such as watery mouth, joint and navel ill, dysentery, salmonellae and E. coliinfections.

Disinfection while birthing is going on is not easy, however, a broad spectrum virucidal bactericide such as Viru-Gardis safe to use as a spray to disinfect the building without removing the animals. It can be used several times daily during birthing. Also muck out pens frequently, and replenish with plentiful fresh bedding - this will keep the progeny clean, warm and dry. Ensure the bedding material is not damp, dusty or mouldy.

Viru-Gard can also be used to keep birthing equipment clean and disinfected. Do not overlook disinfecting water troughs and bowls regularly, as well as teats and milk dispensers.

Progeny losses are not wholly unavoidable. By following a sensible and rigorous hygiene and husbandry program, the farmer can minimise his losses, and maximise his profit potential.

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Feeding Ewes

Feed represents the single largest cost in all types of sheep production. A ewe's nutritional needs are not static. What and how much to feed a ewe depends upon many factors, including the ewe's age, weight, and body condition, along with her stage and level of production. Climate and exercise can also have an effect on nutritional requirements. 

A wide variety of feedstuffs can meet the nutritional needs of ewes during their different production stages. There is no one perfect feeding program. The choice of feeding program will depend upon geographic region, when lambs are born, and the cost and availability of feedstuffs.

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Life cycle feeding of ewes 

Breeding

Flushing
Feeding the ewe so she is gaining weight about 2 weeks before breeding is called flushing. Flushing may increase lambing percentage by increasing the number of eggs that the ewes ovulate. Flushing works best on thin ewes. Ewes that are already in good body condition usually do not respond well to flushing.

Flushing has more effect early in the breeding season. Flushing may also be beneficial late in the breeding season. Mature ewes respond better to flushing than yearlings. You can flush ewes by feeding them 0.5 to 1 lb. of grain per day or by moving them to a better pasture. If flushing is continued through the breeding season, it may enhance embryo survival during early pregnancy.

Plant estrogens
Ewes should not be bred on pastures that contain a high percentage of legumes. Clovers (especially red clover), alfalfa, and birdsfoot trefoil may delay estrus. Fescue grasses, as well as barley grain and oat grain also contain compounds with estrogenic activity. Estrogenic compounds are present in varying concentrations in most all legume plants during the entire growing season, though not when the plants are mature and dry.

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Early-to-mid gestation

Early/mid gestation is a critical period because placental development occurs from day 30 to day 90 of gestation. Placental size or weight affects nutrient transfer between the ewe and the her fetuses. Underdeveloped placentas result in lower birth weights regardless of late gestation nutrition. Twenty-one (21) days of severe underfeeding or 80 days of moderate underfeeding can affect placental development.

Late gestation

Knowing how much to feed ewes during late gestation can be difficult because it depends upon the number of fetuses the ewe is carrying. Underfeeding will result in the birth of small lambs. Small lambs are less resistant to cold stress and will have slower pre-weaning growth. Most of the ewe's mammary development occurs during late gestation. Underfeeding will reduce the yield and quality of milk. Big lambs increase lambing problems and have a higher mortality rate.

The nutrients that are important during late gestation are energy, protein, calcium, selenium, and vitamin E. The amount of energy required depends upon the number of fetuses and cold stress. Winter lambing ewes usually cannot consume enough forage to meet their energy needs. More energy is required two weeks before lambing versus six weeks before lambing. Ewes carrying singles do not need to receive grain as early as those carrying multiple births.

Pregnancy toxemia
Pregnancy toxemia or ketosis is the most common nutritional disorder that occurs during late gestation. It is caused by an inadequate intake of energy during late gestation, as fetuses make 70 percent of their growth. As the ewe breaks down her body fat to meet her increasing nutritional needs, toxic ketone bodies are produced.

The ewes that are most prone to pregnancy toxemia are fat ewes, thin ewes, old ewes, timid ewes, and ewes carrying multiple births. Treatment is to increase the blood glucose level. In advanced cases, a caesarian section may be necessary.

Milk fever
Milk fever is different in sheep as compared to dairy cattle in that symptoms occur pre-lambing. Milk fever is low blood calcium. It is caused by either inadequate intake of calcium or the inability to mobilize calcium reserves. The clinical symptoms are very similar to pregnancy toxemia. Differential diagnosis is based on the affected ewe's response to calcium therapy.

Vaginal prolapses tend to occur more frequently in fat ewes or ewe lambs carrying multiple fetuses. There is simply not enough room. Preventing ewes from becoming overfat and limiting intake are two ways to reduce vaginal prolapses.

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Lactation

Lactation places the greatest nutritional demand on ewes. How much you feed a ewe will depend upon how many lambs she is nursing, her size and condition, her age, and the time of the year the lambs are born. Ideally, ewes should be separated into production groups and fed according to the number of lambs they are nursing. A general rule of thumb for concentrate feeding of lactating ewes is 1 pound of grain for each lamb nursing the ewe.

Protein and energy are both critical nutrients for milk production. If either nutrient is fed below the requirement, milk yields and lamb gain will be reduced. After the first 60 days of lactation, you should reduce the amount of feed you are feeding because all it will accomplish is making the ewes fat.

Most ewes will lose weight during lactation. Weight loss during lactation affects protein requirements. The more weight ewes lose, the higher their protein requirement will be.

Water
Lactating ewes require a lot of water if they are expected to milk well. It is estimated that lactating ewes require 100 percent more water than non-lactating ewes. Ewes should have a free-choice supply of fresh, clean water at all times. Heated water bowls should be used during the winter to encourage water consumption. Water bowls should be checked and cleaned on a daily basis.

WeaningWeaning often takes place at a time when ewes are still producing a lot of milk. In this is the case, grain should be reduced 1 to 2 weeks prior to weaning. For the last week or so prior to weaning, no grain should be fed to the ewes. For the last several days before weaning, ewes should be fed a low quality grass hay or straw. After the lambs have been weaned, the ewes should be maintained in dry lot and fed low quality grass hay or straw until their udders start to dry up and recede.

It is not necessary to remove water from ewes at weaning. It can also be dangerous during hot weather. Do not turn ewes onto pasture immediately after weaning. Spring grass is high in protein, water, and other nutrients which promote milk production.

The overriding concern at weaning time for ewes is to prevent mastitis. Ewes need to be watched closely during the weaning period for mastitis. Ewes with spoiled udders have decreased or no future production value.

MaintenanceThe maintenance period is usually the longest period in the ewe's production year. Maintenance means the ewe only needs to maintain her body weight or have slow growth to recover the weight (condition) she lost during lactation. A wide variety of low-cost feedstuffs can meet the maintenance requirements of ewes. Pasture or grass hay is all most sheep need to maintain themselves. Pet sheep should always be fed at a maintenance level.

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Weaning sheep

Weaning is a crucial time in the management of ewes and sheeps. It is the practice of removing from sheeps the milk diet provided by the ewe (or a milk replacement diet). From the milk diet, sheeps are moved onto forage or grain-based diets. The separation can be stressful for both ewes and sheeps. It should be the goal of all producers to minimize stress at weaning. 

When to Wean: 

Weaning age varies greatly in the sheep industry and depends upon many factors including availability of pasture and other feed supplies and target market. Sheeps have been weaned successfully as early as 14 days, while some sheeps are allowed to wean naturally, staying with the dams for six months or more. In fact, some sheeps are marketed before they are weaned.

Early in life, the sheep cannot digest anything but milk. However, by 3 weeks of age, the developed rumen makes the sheep more efficient than the ewe. Typically, the ewe's milk production peaks 3 to 4 weeks after sheeping and steadily declines to about half as much by 10 weeks. About 74 percent of all milk is produced in the first 8 weeks of lactation. 

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Early Weaning: 

Early weaning is a relative term, but implies weaning at any time after 14 days of age, but usually before 90 days. Sixty (60) days is a common weaning age in intensively managed sheep operations. It is common to wean sheeps in a dairy sheep operation when they are 30 to 35 days of age.

Early weaning can be successful provided sheeps are drinking water and consuming adequate amounts of dry feed. Creep feeding is part of most weaning programs. The size of the sheep at weaning is generally more important than its actual age. As a rule of thumb, most sheeps can be weaned at 60 days of age, whichever comes first (though this will vary by breed).

Early weaning offers many advantages. Weaned sheeps are very efficient feed converters. It is more efficient to feed grain to sheeps because they will convert the feed to gain more efficiently than the ewes can convert the feed to milk to sheep gain. Early weaning eases the lactation stress of high-producing ewes. It allows ewes to return to breeding condition earlier, which is essential for accelerated sheeping programs.

Weaning sheeps early and placing them in a feed lot for finishing saves pasture and enables the producer to maintain more ewes on a given amount of pasture. In drought years, it is common to wean sheeps early (60-90 days).
With early weaning, cull ewes can be sold earlier, sometimes for higher prices. Sheeps can are usually marketed early, when prices are typically higher. However, early weaning is more stressful to both the ewe and sheeps. Ewes are more prone to mastitis because they are still producing milk when their sheeps are separated.

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Orphan Sheeps:

Early weaning should always be the goal with orphan sheeps. Artificially-reared sheeps can be successfully weaned from milk feeding at 11 to 15kgs body weight or when they are 30 to 45 days old. Weaning abruptly is better than offering a diluted milk replacer the last week. However, orphan sheeps should not be weaned unless they are drinking water and consuming solid food.

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Late Weaning:

In a natural situation, weaning occurs at approximately 6 months of age, usually in the fall when the ewes return to estrus. Spring-born sheeps are often weaned later than winter-born and fall-born sheeps. In fact, it is not uncommon to leave spring-born sheeps with their dams on pasture until they are ready for market.

There are several advantages to late weaning. It is more natural and results in less stress for the ewe and sheeps. There is less risk of the ewe developing mastitis since her milk production has declined significantly by the time the sheeps are weaned. Late weaning allows the producer to take advantage of available forage for sheeps.

Pasture gains are usually more economical than those achieved in a feed lot situation. On the other hand, sheeps must compete with ewes for the available forage. They are more likely to become infected with infective worm larvae. Predator problems are usually greater in late weaning, pasture-rearing environments. If male sheeps will be left with their dams past 3 to 4 months of age, they should be castrated. Castrated rams do not grow as fast as intact males.

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A comparison of early vs. late weaning:

Early (less than 90 days)	Late (more than 120 days)
It is not necessary to castrate ram sheeps. It is more efficient to feed grain to sheeps than ewes. It eases lactation stress of prolific ewes It allows ewes to return to breeding condition earlier. Cull ewes can be sold earlier. Sheeps can usually be marketed earlier. Pasture is saved for ewes. More ewes can be maintained on farm.	It is more natural. Sheeps and ewes are less stressed. There is less risk of mastitis. It requires less pens and/or pasture fields. It takes advantage of available forage. Pasture gains are usually more economical than feedlot gains.
However . . . It is more stressful to sheeps and ewes. Ewes are more prone to mastitis. Extra pens and/or pasture fields are needed.	However . . . Sheeps have to compete for the same pasture as ewes. Sheeps are more likely to become infected with worm larvae. Predator losses could be higher. Ram sheeps need to be castrated.

Preventing Mastitis:

The main concern at weaning time for ewes is to prevent mastitis problems. Ewes with mastitis have reduced or no production value in future years. The easiest way to prevent mastitis is to halt milk production. Approximately two weeks before weaning, grain should be removed from the ewe's diet. IF possible, you should feed a low quality forage prior to weaning. Feeding straw the last 2 to 3 days before weaning further shuts down lactation.

After weaning, ewes should be maintained on low quality feed for 3 to 7 days to assist ewes in drying up. Some producers withhold or restrict water intake before and after weaning. However, removing water from the ewe's diet during hot weather can be dangerous and is not recommended.

You should not turn ewes out to pasture immediately after weaning them. Spring grass is high in protein, water, and other nutrients which promote milk production.

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Weaning Environment:

Generally, weaning time is more stressful for sheeps than ewes. At weaning, the sheeps are challenged not only by being separated from their mother, but also by their need to fend for themselves nutritionally. Their immune systems are not fully developed, and they are more susceptible to disease.

You should not drastically change the sheep's ration for two weeks before to two weeks after weaning. When weaning, the ewes should be removed from the sheeps, not vice versa. By leaving sheeps in the same location, they will experience less stress and are less likely to go off feed because they will know where the feeders, minerals, and water are.

It has generally recommended that ewes and sheeps are far enough apart that they can't hear each other. It's important to maintain the same groupings during weaning, e.g. keep siblings together. Newly weaned sheeps should have plenty of clean, fresh water at all times. Keep the sheeps on the same feed before and after weaning until the stress of weaning has pasted (7-10 days). Feeds containing urea should not be fed for at least 2 weeks past weaning.

Sheeps weaned at 10 weeks of age will recognize and return to their dams after 2 months of separation. After weaning, twins will stay together for the first few days.

Newly weaned sheeps should be closely monitored for health problems. Coccidiosis is most common in weanling sheeps. Enterotoxemia (overeating disease type D) is more common in early weaned sheeps. It can be prevented with vaccination. Sheeps from vaccinated dams should receive their first vaccination for type D at approximately 10 weeks of age, followed by a booster 2 to 4 weeks later.

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Nutrient management on sheep farms

One of the most important aspects of any animal-based agricultural operation is having an effective waste management plan which reaps the benefits and helps reduce the risks associated with the use and disposal of animal wastes. Improper manure management can have a detrimental effect on water quality.

Manure management regulations are created and enforced by federal, provincial, state, and local authorities in an attempt to minimize water pollution. Good manure management will also ensure that you get the maximum benefit from the nutrients in the manure.

If sheep and/or lambs spend any part of the year in barns, stalls, pens, loafing areas, or feeding areas, you will need to deal with manure from those areas. Manure is not just the urine and feces from livestock, but also the bedding, runoff, spilled feed, and anything else mixed with it.

A complete manure management system involves collection, storage (temporary or long-term) and ultimate disposal or utilization. If your sheep produce more manure than you can use on your land, you need to develop ways to sell the manure or give it away.

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Manure production
Manure production varies with breed and feeding levels. The amount of bedding to be handled with the manure depends on the housing system selected. A market lamb weighing about 100 lbs produces 4 lbs of manure daily, the equivalent of about 0.06 cubic feet per day. About 0.65 cubic foot per day of storage is needed for each 1,000 pounds of live sheep, or about 40 pounds of manure per day.

Manure as a Fertilizer
Manure contains valuable nutrients, like nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K). In addition to the three major elements, manure also contains essential micro-nutrients (boron, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, molybednum, sulfer, and zinc. Manure nutrients come from the feed that the animals have eaten.

Manure Storage

Storage of livestock wastes and wastewater involves accumulating manure in an environmentally sound manner until they can be applied to land or otherwise utilized. Manure storage facilities allow farmers to spread manure when the conditions are right for nutrient use by crops.

The ideal storage site for solid manure is a roofed shed with an impermeable floor (e.g. concrete). Dry manure can be stored in solid form in stockpiles; however, the piles should be covered. Obviously, manure storage structures or sites should be located to minimize odour nuisance to neighbours.

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Management of sheep and kids

      1. Ensure proper suckling of the lambs. Examine udders for blindness of teats or mastitis.

2. Take care of indifferent mothers and arrange suckling of lambs by restraining such types of ewes.

3.    Provide creep feed (good quality hay with or without concentrate mixture) to suckling lambs in addition to suckling of milk from tenth day to weaning age.

4. If possible, make available green leguminous fodder or fresh tree leaves to lambs to nibble during suckling period.

5.  Perform 'lamb marking' operation (comprising ear tagging/tattooing, tail docking and castration of male lambs) at the age of 2-4 weeks.

6. Weaning should preferably be done at 90 days, although in breeds with low milk production or where re-breeding is desired, it can be done around 60 days.

7.  Supplementary feeding and good clean pastures must be provided.

8. Weaned lambs should be drenched against gastro-intestinal parasites by the first month, and vaccinated against enterotoxaemia and sheep pox.

9.  Weaners should not be grazed on poor, burry and thorny types of pasture since it could cause skin irritation, injury to the eyes and damage to the wool.

10.  They should be protected against predation and the vagaries of climate.

Castration : Surplus males are castrated to check indiscriminate mating, to make the males more docile and to make mutton of superior quality. However, in India, the market demand most often favours the intact male. Castration is usually done by using a castrating knife, Burdizzo castrator/emasculatome or elastrator.

1.    Burdizzo/emasculatome method

§  Secure the lamb and place it on its rumps with tail placed along the floor.

§  Manipulate the testes and slightly pull out the scrotum.

§  Hold the spermatic cords tightly on both sides making sure that it does not slip.

§  Apply tincture iodine at the site.

§  Place the jaws of the emasculatome over the spermatic cords and press the handles completely; hold for a few moments before releasing.

§  Repeat the process about 1 cm below the first crush.

§  Apply additional antiseptic and watch the animal for infection for a few days.

§  Precautions : The emasculatome must be clean and disinfected, and its jaws must be clean and  smooth. The testes must be protected from injury. The scrotal skin folds must not be crushed.

Layout and design of sheds for sheep and goat farms

Normally sheep and goats do not require elaborate housing facilities, but minimum provisions will definitely increase productivity, especially protection against inclement weather conditions and predation. Often, the flocks are penned in the open during fair weather and some temporary shelters are made use of in monsoon and winter. Sheep can be economically reared under ranch system. Requirements of building units are more or less the same for sheep and goats, except that additional buildings are required for goats reared for milk.

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The shed site should be easily approachable and spacious, dry, elevated, well-drained and protected from strong winds. An East-West orientation ensures cooler environment. A “lean-to” type of shed, located against the side of an existing building, is the cheapest form of building. Loose housing is more advantageous as compared to conventional/stall-fed sheds because it is suitable for semi-arid regions and large-sized flocks, it involves less expenditure, it provides more comfort to the animals, it is less labour-intensive, and it provides freedom of movement and gives the benefit of exercise. Stilted housing is common in areas with heavy rainfall.

Floor space requirements :-

Sl. No.	Type of animal	Minimum floor space (m2)
1.	Ram or buck in groups	1.8
2.	Ram or buck, individual	3.2
3.	Lamb or kids in groups	0.4
4.	Weaner in groups	0.8
5.	Weaner, individual	0.9
6.	Yearling, individual	0.9
7.	Yearlings in groups	0.9
8.	Ewe or doe in groups	1.0
9.	Ewe or doe, individual	1.2
10.	Ewe with lamb	1.5

Types of sheds :-

Sl. No.	Type of shed	Size (m)	Height (m)	Maximum animals
1.	Ewe/doe shed	15 x 4	3	60
2.	Ram/buck shed	4 x 2.5	3	3
3.	Lambing/kidding shed	1.5 x 1.2	3	3
4.	Lamb/kid shed	7.5 x 4	3	75
5.	Weaner shed	7.5 x 4	3	75
6.	Yearling shed	10 x 5	3	50
7.	Sick animal shed	3 x 2	3	1
8.	Shearing shed and store room	6 x 2.5	3
9.	Shepherd’s room	6 x 4	3